BEES

CONTENTS

BEEKEEPING & DEVELOPMENT, AN "EDN" FOR BEEKEEPERS. This quarterly networking newsletter specializes in information related to all aspects of beekeeping in the tropics and subtropics. A typical issue contains: news briefs related to past, present, and future happenings around the world; practical beekeeping tips, like how to make your own smoker, how to build a hive out of mud bricks and concrete, and queen rearing with African bees. Feature articles deal with case studies and special issues (e.g. tropical trees for beekeepers). Useful bits of information related to job openings, books, meetings and resources of interest to beekeepers in the tropics round out each issue.

One tidbit we recently picked up is how to use a paper clip (with 4 mm inner measurement) as a queen excluder. Newsletter subscriptions (4/year) are L16.00 (US$35). Folks living in developing countries may also pay by beeswax barter or request a sponsored subscription. In addition to the newsletter, they distribute a variety of educational materials, provide free expert advice to those on the field and can assist in project planning and implementation, teaching, organizing seminars, preparing documentation, etc. Write Bees For Development, Troy, Monmouth, NP5 4AB, UK; phone: 44(0) 16007 13648; fax: 44(0) 16007 16167; e-mail 100410.2631@CompuServe.COM. Return to CONTENTS.

INDEPENDENT STUDY COURSE ON TROPICAL BEEKEEPING. The University of Guelph publishes many independent study courses on topics in agriculture. The course "Tropical Beekeeping" was written by Dr. Townsend who wrote the article on trees for beekeepers in EDN. It is based on his experiences in directing apiculture programs in Kenya and Sri Lanka and consulting in South and Central America and elsewhere. It details the behavior, management and pests of the African, Asian and Africanized bees, and examines beekeeping in the South Pacific and Caribbean. Processing, marketing, hive designs and protective equipment are also covered. There are 120 color slides on microfiche, a text, a cassette tape and a fiche viewer. The cost is C$70, (about US$50) including surface postage. Write to Independent Study, OAC ACCESS, Univ. of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, CANADA; e-mail to request a catalog is handbook@access.uoguelph.ca. They also have an advanced apiculture course for C$225 (Tropical Beekeeping is the last part of the latter). Return to CONTENTS.

BEEKEEPING OF THE ASSASSIN BEES/LA ABEJA AFRICANIZADA. (Review by Dr. David Unander.) Since being introduced into Brazil in 1957, African honeybees have been spreading through the tropical and subtropical parts of the Americas. They readily interbreed with the honeybees of European ancestry, so that today it is correct to speak of the honeybees through much of Latin America as being Africanized; that is, most of the wild bees and many of the bees in hives now have at least some African ancestry and behavior traits.

Can Africanized bees be successfully kept, or are they too dangerous? The newspaper where I live, normally not overly hysterical, once devoted the cover story of its Sunday magazine to predictions of great personal danger to citizens and grave economic loss to farmers as the "killer bees" begin to arrive in California. Dr. Dario Espina-Perez, a Latin American entomologist and beekeeper, disagrees strongly with this B-movie scenario in his excellent book.

He begins with a very interesting chapter on tropical apiculture (beekeeping) per se. He discusses, for example, problems with heat, humidity, termites and dry seasons; various options for hive construction; how to move established wild colonies from undesired places, such as the eave of a house, to a hive; evaluating the apiculture potential of a region; and problems from agricultural insecticides. A chapter on African honeybees describes in what ways they differ from their European cousins. In particular, they are smaller, tend to swarm more often, are more aggressive and seem to produce 50-100% more honey.

He carefully makes the point that all bees are aggressive some of the time. The aggression of Africanized bees has been found to vary with region and altitude. The higher the altitude, for example, the more pacific their behavior becomes. (I hope this is good news for some of you living in mountainous areas). Like all honeybees, they are most aggressive when they perceive their hive as being threatened, and least aggressive when collecting pollen (unless directly stepped on). There is a chapter on bee aggression; how it is regulated in the hive, how a stinger works, different human reactions to the venom, including allergic reactions and, of great value, a list of medications to have on hand for various numbers of stings and reactions to them.

After this foundation, there are four chapters with recommended management techniques for Africanized bees organized under: (a) controlling aggression, (b) controlling swarming, (c) controlling migration, and (d) miscellaneous tips. He has a well-developed plan for maintaining breeding colonies of both European-ancestry and local Africanized bees, with hives for honey production using hybrid bees. There is a good discussion of where to place--and where not to place--Africanized hives. For example, Africanized bees do not like vibrations from highways nor strong smells of any origin near the hive. Also there is a review of necessary bee-keeping equipment. I learned that Africanized bees react most negatively to dark colors, better to white, and best of all to orange. There are various recommendations for hive dimensions and openings, honey harvesting schedules, keeping track of new queens, and other management techniques, in order to control the swarming and migratory tendencies of these bees.

Additional ideas are contained in five appendices. There are also some pages of references. One appendix contains the minutes from a question and answer session between Honduran beekeepers and a round table of entomologists and beekeepers experienced with Africanized bees, followed by detailed recommendations for Honduras beekeepers which were worked out at that meeting.

Excellent diagrams and photos illustrate successful apiculture operations with Africanized bees by various Latin American beekeepers. There are also photos of hive structures he advises against. Although the Africanized bees are not the "killer bees" of Hollywood, it seems clear that their aggression merits enough respect that some low-cost apiculture techniques which were previously acceptable in the Americas are no longer safe; beekeeping will now need greater forethought and some additional equipment.

La Abeja Africanizada by Dario Espina P., 158 pp., US$4; or Beekeeping of the Assassin Bees, 170 pp., US$6 are published by Instituto Technologico de Costa Rica, Editorial Technologica de Costa Rica, Apartado 159-7050, Cartago, COSTA RICA. If you are a beekeeper in the Americas, it would be a good investment.

Dr. Hal Reed, an entomologist at Oral Roberts University, wrote, "The review states that the Africanized bees readily interbreed with honey bees of European ancestry. This is not entirely correct. Recent evidence published in Nature and discussed at the recent National Entomology meeting indicate that very little interbreeding is taking place between the European and African strains. Indeed, researchers feel that the leading edge of the invasive population in Mexico is almost purely African, like the original bees introduced in Brazil. There is disagreement about the degree, if any, of interbreeding."

Dave Unander wrote, "Debate continues among scientists regarding the extent to which the African bees are hybridizing with European bees as they migrate northward. (All honeybees in the Americas are believed to have been introductions since Columbus.) If there is substantial mixing of the populations, it is hoped that the undesired behavioral traits of the African bees, such as aggressiveness, might be modified. At this time evidence seems to suggest that bees of purely African ancestry out-compete the hybrid African-European bees. Several prominent bee scientists believe they have data, however, suggesting that the advancing bees are hybrids. Whether they are or not, they so far do not seem to be changing their behavior. So all of the changes in beekeeping methods recommended by Dr. Espina continue to be relevant. As of the summer of 1991, African bees have entered the United States and are expected to ultimately establish themselves from throughout the southern USA to the temperate region of Argentina." Return to CONTENTS.

IS THE NEEM TREE HARMFUL TO HONEYBEES? Dave Morneau in the Central Plateau of Haiti asked us about the Haitian beekeepers' belief that neem (Azadirachta indica) or chinaberry (Melia azedarach) blossom nectar is harmful to honeybees, since leaves and seeds are widely used to control insects. We checked ECHO's library and found no written evidence to support this concern.

Neem: A Tree for Solving Global Problems reports that neem is benign to most beneficial insects, and "[insects] that feed on nectar or other insects rarely contact significant concentrations of neem products." The authors cite a study which found that "only after repeated spraying of highly concentrated neem products onto plants in flower were worker bees at all affected. Under these extreme conditions, the workers carried contaminated pollen or nectar to the hives and fed it to the brood. Small hives then showed insect-growth-regulating effects; however, medium-sized and large bee populations were unaffected."

Beekeeping in India mentions that neem is an erratic producer of nectar, but that the chinaberry does not seem to be visited by bees. Another source lists neem in its list of common nectar sources for Sri Lanka, flowering in May and June. A table in Agroforestry in Dryland Africa shows that providing fodder for bees is a major use of neem and a secondary use of chinaberry. Finally, the thorough Handbook of Plants with Pest-Control Properties does not include either neem or chinaberry in its group of plants which are toxic to honeybees. A visitor from India told us that bees are used to pollinate the extensive neem orchards in his area. Based on our research, we cannot confirm the Haitian farmers' concern that neem could harm their beehives.

Dr. Nicola Bradbear with Bees for Development responded to this article. "Here at Bees for Development we have never received information that either [neem or chinaberry] is harmful to bees. On the contrary, both are frequently cited as excellent sources of pollen and nectar for honeybees (see for example Honeybee Flora of Ethiopia pp. 340-345). It would not be in the interest of flowering plants to produce pollen and nectar that are toxic to possible pollinating insects. ...In Beekeeping and Development 27 we carried news of research in India which indicated that [spraying with] neem derivatives did not deter three bee species from visiting coconut spathes having receptive female flowers with nectar. However the research did not indicate whether the derivatives were toxic to the bees." Return to CONTENTS.

WHEN HONEYBEES BECOME DRUNK. According to the October 1992 issue of Apis, drunk bees can be a problem. An Australian scientist studying beekeeping practices in Kenya observed strange behavior. Drunk bees had difficulty coordinating their actions. They may die or be unable to return to their hive. When they do make it to the entrance, strange acting drunk bees are rejected by the guard bees. Finally, drunk bees are more vulnerable to predators.

Apparently local beekeepers were feeding hives weak sugar solutions, which often fermented. Fermentation of weak sugar syrup can be avoided by feeding bees stronger solutions and/or ensuring that the sugar water is consumed quickly. "Because many beekeepers do feed sugar syrup during marginal times, this brings into focus another possible reason colonies might suffer either autumn collapse or spring decline in population." Return to CONTENTS.

HOW DO THE AFRICANS HANDLE AFRICAN BEES? I know of folks in the Americas who are giving up beekeeping because of problems that arose when the African bees migrated into their areas. On the other hand, a beekeeper told me of a government project that was proposed to some farmers in Argentina some time ago to supposedly get rid of the African bees there. The beekeepers were not interested because of the higher yields of honey with the African bees. Our readers in Africa work with these bees all the time, so I wrote to Neal Eash in Botswana and asked if he could recommend a practical beekeeping guide for handling African bees. He sent us an excellent book called the "Beekeeping Handbook." You can order it from the Beekeeping Officer, Dept. of Field Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Private Bag 003, Gaborone, BOTSWANA, Southern Africa. You can order them for $2 each, postage paid by surface mail. There is a discount price of $1.50 for 10 or more books.

I think you will find this basic 76-page book to be an excellent and practical guide. It is especially surprising to see pictures of men and boys wearing short-sleeved shirts and shorts handling the African bees. Neal wrote, "My father kept bees. I remember putting on coveralls and heavy gloves, tying pant legs and shirt sleeves and we still got stung. It took a little courage here the first time I worked with bees in a pair of shorts, a T-shirt and straw hat, but I rarely get stung by this so-called 'vicious' bee anymore." He did mention that he recently was stung 7 times when a frame broke just as he ran out of smoke. The Heifer Project Exchange says the book can also be ordered from International Bee Research Assoc., Hill House, Gerrards Cross, Bucks SL9 ONR, ENGLAND. Return to CONTENTS.

ONE EXPERIENCE WITH BEES IN AFRICA. Herb Perry gave us this report of an experience with bees while at the Mt. Silinda Mission in southeastern Zimbabwe, located in a subtropical rain forest at 1500m elevation. "One day on returning to my home in a car, I found a large group of African children along with my own children inside the house where my wife was busy extracting bees from the children's hair. It seems they were all playing outside when suddenly the bees attacked and the children all ran screaming into the house. Once inside my wife took to dunking the children's heads in basins of water in an effort to remove the bees from the hair in which they were lodged. This seemed to work, but of course the bees' stingers remained in the scalp and the bees soon died. For about half an hour in the vicinity of our home, nothing moved without being attacked by an angry horde. After things had quieted down somewhat I ventured outside to survey the area. We had a flock of chickens, and they were all dead. We also had a cat which had recently produced a litter of kittens. The mother cat had disappeared into the forest, but the kittens were all dead. The mother returned eventually, but had been stung repeatedly all over her head. Our dog suffered the same fate. He also sought refuge in the forest, and also returned with many stings on his face. Laundry that had been hung on a line to dry, and which had blown in the breeze, had also been stung. The bees appeared to attack anything that moved. We can only guess at what made them become so ferociously hostile, but it has been suggested that perhaps a chicken had eaten one, or someone had carelessly swatted one. At any rate it was a terrifying experience for everyone, especially the children and the animals.

"In spite of the perils involved, many African families would harvest the honey from these wild bees whose hives were generally to be found in hollow trees in the forest. The honey was always very dark, very much like molasses in appearance. Generally speaking the honey would be gathered during the early morning or late afternoon, suggesting perhaps that the bees are inclined to be more docile during these periods." Return to CONTENTS.

STOPPING BEES. Suppose a situation arises where you must quickly eliminate an exposed group of bees. For example, a swarm is hanging in a school yard or a truck carrying hives has upset. How can you kill or immobilize the bees?

Dr. Eric Mussen, a California extension bee keeper, writes in his newsletter From the U.C. Apiaries, "The answer in many cases, especially in areas of Africanized bees, is 'soap water.' Mix one cup of dish washing detergent in a gallon of water and apply to the swarm using any sprayer. He says it is just as effective as using a flame thrower.

Dr. Mussen believes this works because detergents are "wetting agents." This means that water sticks to every surface of the bee instead of running off. The bees are unable to fly with wet wings [and perhaps heavier body weight when wet?]. The spiracles, or breathing holes, which normally are able to repel water, are entered by the "wetter" water, suffocating the bee.

Do not use it near a hive where it might get on the comb, if you want the hive to return to normal activity. [The above is based on an article in Apis, the state of Florida beekeepers' newsletter.] Return to CONTENTS.

Return to CHAPTER 9.

Advance to CAMELS.

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CAMELS

INTRODUCING THE CAMEL, by Peter Grill. Lamar Witmer in Kenya sent us a copy of this unique book. He wrote, "I've read a number of books about camels. The one I am sending you is the one I believe to be the most useful as a single guide for development workers among pastoralists who herd camels. It emphasizes practical concerns rather than purely scientific ones. It was written from the perspective of eastern Africa, which may limit its usefulness in other regions.

"One of the problems is that it was printed by special project money in 1987 and only a limited supply remains." Well, we agreed that it was a practical and unique book that should be easily available. So it was reprinted by the Mennonite Central Committee Office in the USA for distribution by ECHO.

It is a 149-page, spiral bound book. Chapter titles include: habitat of camels; camel adaptations to heat stress; reproduction (reproductive habits, rutting behavior, signs of oestrus, oestrus cycle, coitus, pregnancy testing, parturition); raising camel calves; establishing a camel breeding herd; products from the camel (milk production, composition and products, meat, blood, hides and wool, misc.); the riding camel (uses, selecting, pace, selecting by age, training, handling, weight bearing, breaking the lead, riding saddle), camels as beasts of burden (potential uses, capacity, age for training, moving a camel train, loading a camel, types of baggage saddles, making a baggage saddle, draft camels, plowing with the camel, other uses as a power source); buying camels (marketing system, difficulties, selecting, determining the age); feeding and watering camels (eating habits, feeding management, watering, drinking rate); common camel health problems in Kenya (general health, signs of a sick camel, examining the camel, common health problems, diseases [protozoal, bacterial, viral, internal parasites, external parasites, other problems]); developing a record system.

An excerpt from the feeding chapter follows. "Camels are primarily browsers. This gives them an advantage over cattle because they will eat leaves from trees in addition to grass much more readily than cattle will. ... [This] makes them ideal animals to add to the livestock mix of commercial ranches. Some ranchers in Kenya have added camels to their cattle and small stock ranching system so that they can use the camels to open up new pasture areas for the small stock. In dense brush the camels are brought in to browse the bushes. This breaks up some of the dense brush so that the goats can come in and browse the lower branches. The goats thin out the foliage so that the sun can reach the grasses. The additional sunlight increases the growth of the grass so that the cattle and sheep have more to eat. ... they increase the carrying capacity of the land for cattle and sheep in addition to the meat and milk from camels who are eating what would normally be unused by the other stock." Available from ECHO for $5 plus postage.

Return to CHAPTER 9.

Advance to CAVIES.

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Return to CHAPTER 9.

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CAVIES

TECHNICAL NOTE "MEAT PRODUCTION ON THE SMALL FARM WITH CAVY (GUINEA PIG)" by Dr. Frank Martin, 6 pages. The cavy is a rodent that was domesticated in the Andes as a source of meat. Because it is small, it can be eaten by a small family in one meal and does not require refrigeration. The meat is much like that of a rabbit, with low fat content. The cavy multiplies rapidly, though not at the rate that folk literature would suggest. With breeding as recommended in the technical note, one pair might produce 260 new pairs in 2 years. The wide variety of foods that the cavy will eat is a benefit. In parts of Latin America, cavy breeds much larger than those common in the United States are used. Request the note from ECHO.

Return to CHAPTER 9.

Advance to CHICKENS.

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CHICKENS

IMPROVING BACKYARD CHICKEN PRODUCTION. "Probably more people are directly involved in chicken production throughout the world than in any other single agricultural enterprise," according to Dr. John Bishop, a poultry specialist who has worked extensively in Latin America and Africa to improve the production of traditional small-farm poultry. Maintaining and improving the productivity of backyard chicken flocks is important for the well-being of rural families.

Backyard producers value chickens for their adaptability, contributions to the family's income and nutrition, and for insect control and fertilizers in the garden. In most family flocks, chickens scavenge plant or food residues and insects around the home. With minimal care, they can hatch and raise chicks, produce high-value meat, and give eggs which meet a strategic nutritional need of children. Live chickens sold for meat bring a good price and are a primary source of household income. (This is why "new" fowl are not always quick to catch on in village settings: farmers raise chickens because they sell easily in markets--not primarily for home use or egg production--and it would be harder to sell more unusual birds.)

"The efficiency of backyard animal production lies in the fact that it utilizes excess family labor and surplus on-farm feed" with few purchased inputs, so income from sale of the chickens is virtually all profit. High-input, large-scale poultry systems are obviously not suitable for family flocks, and even "transitional" systems of 200-300 birds which apply large-scale technologies (such as hatchery breeds, balanced feeds, and artificial lighting and brooding) to small farms are rarely successful.

It is extremely difficult for families to maintain flock numbers and replace birds which are lost or sold if they cannot produce chicks on their farm. Buying replacement chicks from a hatchery is expensive and can be disastrous for household chicken production. Hatchery birds may require artificial incubation, disease control measures, or special feeds not available on the small farm. All these effects are serious for the farm family, but the loss of hens' broodiness (readiness to set on eggs for hatching) is particularly serious.

When hatchery roosters cross with traditional hens, flocks can lose their ability to hatch and raise chicks in just one generation. In Ecuador, for example, the commercial hatcheries surrounding the cities may "dump" their extra birds (mostly roosters) in rural areas at low prices. While traditional ('criollo') hens are selected for broodiness, superior egg-laying hatchery varieties are not broody or show only incomplete broodiness, such as laying eggs but not setting consistently. This can quickly make the farmer dependent on buying incubated hatchery stock, which may not perform well in backyard conditions. People who substitute them for criollo birds may have little success with incubator hatching methods in areas of erratic electricity.

Farmers who have encountered this problem learn quickly. Dr. Bishop told of a worker in the Amazonian region of Ecuador who was improving a flock to share with local indigenous farmers. When the farmers saw one white bird they said, "We don't want to contaminate our flocks." They then told how a specialist gave them "superior" white roosters, and they had to get rid of their flocks and start over with chickens from tribes that had not participated. Broodiness is a key link in the small-scale poultry production system, since the producer sells hens, not eggs. Of criollo birds in a backyard management situation, only one third of a flock usually lay each day; one third laid the day before, and the other third are setting or caring for chicks.

Dr. Bishop suggested that development projects make it their policy to avoid dealing in hatchery birds (even traditional breeds like Rhode Island Reds have lost most of their ability to successfully hatch eggs) and purchased feeds. He named the following key elements for economically viable family poultry production. (1) Use small-scale production systems with low purchased inputs and minimized risk. (2) Choose appropriate breeding stock which can incubate and brood replacement chicks by natural reproduction. (3) Apply the fundamental pest and disease control practices outlined below.

Basic, inexpensive disease control markedly increases the survival and productivity of a family flock. Traditional chickens that are vaccinated and treated for common infections and parasites are usually hardy enough to thrive in backyard conditions. The following four preventive practices, given every three months, will eliminate most health problems in poultry flocks: vaccination in the eye for the Newcastle disease virus (which is highly infectious and can kill the whole flock), deworming for roundworms and tapeworms, dusting under wings for irritating external parasites such as lice, and treatment for chronic respiratory disease which lowers production.

As for nutrition, the main limiting factor in traditional production is inadequate energy in the feed available to backyard birds. Scavenging chickens can usually fulfill their protein, vitamin, and mineral requirements, but are unable to obtain sufficient energy for adequate growth and egg production. Small amounts of supplemental grains such as corn can yield impressive results in weight gain and egg production. It is often more profitable to convert surplus grain into eggs and birds for sale than to sell the grain directly, since in many areas a chicken sells for more than a whole sack of corn.

Consider a permanent flock stabilized at 12 adult hens and one rooster. The farmer could let one broody hen set per month with 10-12 eggs and thus produce at least 4 replacement chicks per month, after losses in incubation and brooding. A hen takes about 4 months to raise her chicks, so at any given time about 4 of the 12 permanent hens would be caring for chicks, leaving the other 8 hens for egg laying. Without supplemental energy feed, the farmer would probably only get 2 eggs per day. By feeding the twelve hens one pound of corn per day, the 8 laying hens will give an average of 4 eggs per day. This system would produce 4 replacement chicks and about 10 dozen eggs per month. For the farmer, the broody hens likely earn more by raising 4 chickens for sale than the value of 4 months of eggs.

Dr. Bishop says that where the traditional flocks have disappeared or are being eroded, it is necessary to establish multiplier flocks of appropriate breeding stock which can naturally incubate and brood replacement chicks. He has a foundation breeder flock in Ohio of "Triple Production Reds" (meat, eggs, and chicks), and can provide a limited supply of hatching eggs for a starter multiplier flock. He is the founding director of the nonprofit ministry Poultry Development Service, 11806 SR 347, Marysville, OH 43040; tel: 937/348-2344; e-mail kbishop@urec.net.   For more information on this subject and details on the disease control measures, write to ECHO for Dr. Bishop's Technical Note "Chickens: Improving Small-Scale Production in the Tropics." To inquire about receiving hatching eggs, contact Dr. Bishop directly.

Return to CHAPTER 9.

Advance to FISH.

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FISH

CONTENTS

DRY FISHPONDS BECOME OASES OF PRODUCTIVITY. (Excerpted from Spore August 1994, p. 12.) "Fishponds are a relatively new innovation for farmers in Malawi. ... [During the 1992 drought] farmers with fishponds were able to harvest the fish before the ponds dried out. ... the farmers were then able to plant vegetables in the pond. This gave them an extra crop when other farmers were unable to grow anything." Return to CONTENTS.

AUBURN UNIVERSITY IS EXCEPTIONALLY SUPPORTIVE OF PVO WORK IN AQUACULTURE. I spent a stimulating week at Auburn University's International Aquaculture Program. I have never seen such a concentration of both faculty and graduate students who were eager for opportunities to help private voluntary organizations (PVO's) with aquaculture problems and opportunities! Auburn will assist you with technical information, ideas from their development experiences, and even "tailoring" training for visitors or requesters.

They offer an annual eight-week aquaculture training program (in 1995 it was July-September). The comprehensive course is designed for fisheries technicians and administrators, as well as for those who practice aquaculture with PVOs. The emphasis is on practical experience and techniques appropriate for developing countries. Cost in 1995 was $4000 plus living expenses. Write to ATP Coordinator, Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Auburn University, AL 36849-5419 USA; phone 205/844-4786; fax 205/844-9208. If you are looking for staff with expertise in this area, you may also want to mention your need to Dr. Bryan Duncan of the International Center for Aquaculture at Auburn University; he may be able to refer some graduate students to assist you in your project. Return to CONTENTS.

CONSULTING HELP IN WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE. The Auburn University staff are exceptionally knowledgeable about third world applications in these areas and have been ready to help with technical information.

Living Water International (LWI) started with Auburn scientists. Dr. Bryan Duncan writes that LWI "is an association of specialists in water resource management, fisheries and aquaculture. LWI was founded to provide information and technical assistance to Christian missions, and similar humanitarian organizations with limited resources working in developing countries. LWI associates hold graduate degrees in their specialties, and are experienced in working and living internationally.

"Specialists are qualified in the following: aquacultural production; freshwater capture fisheries; aquatic ecology and environmental assessment; site assessment and design of aquacultural facilities; harvesting and storage of surface water for multiple use; water quality; integration of agriculture and aquaculture; project feasibility, design, implementation and evaluation; education and training.

"LWI provides services, rather than funding, to other organizations. LWI may be approached directly by organizations desiring assistance, and a response will be tailored where possible to meet the needs and resources of the requesting organization. Write Living Water International, 805 Cary Drive, Auburn, AL 36830, USA." Return to CONTENTS.

NEW BULLETIN SERIES: WATER HARVESTING AND AQUACULTURE FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT. The Water Harvesting/Aquaculture Project (WH/AP) at Auburn University has designed this new series primarily for development workers and extensionists with little or no prior experience in the area. The booklets are very practical with a writing style that is easy to read and not overly technical (about half the information is presented in diagrams and illustrations). All are available in English, French, and Spanish.

The series contains 20 booklets so far. General manuals include: Transporting fish, Feeding your fish, Intro. to water harvesting, Eliminating unwanted fish and harmful insects from fish ponds, Intro. to polyculture of fish, Intro. to fish culture in ponds, Intro. to aquaculture, Fish culture in rice paddies, and Intro. to intensive cage culture of warmwater fish. Fertilization manuals are: Intro. to fish pond fertilization and Chemical/Organic fertilizers for fish ponds. Tilapia manuals include: Intro. to Tilapia, Reproductive biology of Oreochromis niloticus, Intro. to Oreochromis niloticus fry and fingerling production systems, Net enclosure system for Oreochromis niloticus fry and fingerling production, Production of mixed-sex Oreochromis niloticus fingerlings in earthen ponds, Culture of hand-sexed male tilapia, Single pond system for sustainable production of Oreochromis niloticus, and Oreochromis niloticus production in tanks.

We will share one helpful hint mentioned in the manual "Transporting fish." A key to success is, of course, to have plenty of oxygen in the container. If it is necessary to have very many fish in the transporting container, or if the trip is unusually long, the oxygen added at the pickup point (if any) may become exhausted. But if you can purchase hydrogen peroxide, which is widely available around the world in pharmacies, you can actually generate oxygen.

Dip a 2 liter plastic bag (26 x 26 cm) in clean water several times to get it wet, then shake to remove excess water. Place 1 gram of fish liver in the bag then crush it by hand. Add 40 ml of 6% by weight hydrogen peroxide, then quickly expel all the air and seal the bag with an elastic band and shake it. Within 5 minutes the bag will be filled with oxygen. Use a tube to connect the oxygen bag with the transport bag and squeeze to transfer the oxygen. Do not squeeze liquid from the oxygen bag as it may kill fish. If the transport bag is not completely filled, use a tire pump to finish filling it.

If none of this is possible, you should at least periodically bubble air through the container using a tire pump.

WH/AP intends to continue the series with new booklets being published and old ones updated as long as funding allows. Brochures are free of charge, although you may be charged for postage. (Specify language preference.) The brochures are also available on floppy disk in MacIntosh format. They ask that development workers interested in obtaining copies have their field office write, listing the particular titles wanted, to Dr. Bryan Duncan, International Center for Aquaculture, Auburn University, AL 36849-5419, USA. Return to CONTENTS.

HOW TO GROW FISH IN THE MOUNTAINS is by Joe Richter, a missionary-biologist with FARMS in the Philippines. He wrote this book for the farmer and has done a good job of keeping it simple yet covering a great deal of practical information. Every one of its 37 pages is illustrated with one or more drawings. Topics covered are: why grow fish; common cultured fish; pond construction; fingerlings and their production; sexing brood fish; predators; fertilizing and feeding; integrated fish farming; harvesting; and common mistakes in growing fish. You may order the book from ECHO ($5 including postage). Here are some excerpts.

A simple test will determine if your pond site will hold water. "Dig several holes, a bit deeper than your intended pond bottom. Fill with water and observe. If the water still disappears after several fillings, the site may not be suitable for a pond. But if the water remains in the holes the soil is suitable for a pond." Because of the danger of theft, "submerged wire firmly staked into the pond bottom will hinder fishing and netting. Barbed wire may benecessary." Are all fingerlings of good quality? "No! ...inbreeding (breeding between relatives) will produce poor quality fingerlings. In-breeding is a problem in using fingerlings from your own pond, because some of your original stock will be related to each other. [Avoid] stunted fingerlings, fish that may be several months old but still are very small due to lack of food in the pond they came from. They may be already sexually mature and will quickly reproduce and fill your pond with unwanted fingerlings. These stunted fish will grow very slowly." Farmers in the mountains should produce their own fingerlings. "You will need a 1/2 meter deep brood pond that is easy to net and to drain. Initial brood fish need to come from a reliable hatchery. Stock one male for every three females. Stock at a rate of 200 kilograms of brood fish per hectare (e.g. 40 fish weighing 50 grams in 100 square meters)."

"For every kilogram of fish in your pond you can add 80-160 grams of wet manure daily. If your manure is dry, add only 20-40 grams." "Sunny days are best for manure application. The morning is the best time to manure, so the nutrients can be used during the sunny part of the day. Afternoon application can cause a loss of oxygen during the night which can kill the fish." "How do I know when I am fertilizing enough? An easy test is to bend over and place your hand under the water. If your hand disappears before your elbow reaches the water, the pond has enough fertilizer. You should never be able to see the pond bottom." "Carp will eat some of your fingerlings and may allow your tilapia to grow to a larger size." Return to CONTENTS.

THE INSTITUTE OF AQUACULTURE at the University of Stirling, Scotland, is a resource center which concentrates on nutrition, reproduction and genetics, disease, and environmental studies in aquaculture. They offer many (commercial) consultancy services. The Institute offers studies through the doctoral level, as well as several short courses. You may inquire about their publications and services at: Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK.

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MUSCOVIES

MUSCOVY DUCKS FOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS IN THE TROPICS. We mentioned that both Frank Martin with the USDA and Fred Harder with the Heifer Project had told us that for really efficient meat production in the tropics we should be looking at Muscovy ducks. I asked if any of our readers could help us out from their own experience. We received some interesting replies.

Fremont Reiger in Botswana wrote, "Along with our rabbits and a few laying hens, we kept quite a few Muscovy ducks in Zaire. We had duck as our favorite Sunday dinner. We found them much more hardy than chickens--once you got them past the early few days. As hatchlings they were very susceptible to drowning in waterers, rain, getting killed by predators, etc. But once they were a week or two old, they were almost disease free, and grew very rapidly. We fed them chicken mash and often had a hen and her new brood on grass in a false bottom pen/house combination that we moved each day over new grazing grass. I have seen Muscovy ducks in many countries under varied conditions. They seem to thrive everywhere. Taboos against duck meat were a problem in Zaire with some groups. Fencing is easy because ducks normally require a quite low fence. An occasional one may take off and end up outside the pen. We had to build some small pens to keep drakes away from new ducklings, for they would kill them. They do not need water to swim in, but need lots of water to drink, which they dirty quickly by mixing feed in their water. Setting hens also need water to wet their feathers to maintain incubation humidity conditions."

Cheryl Campbell wrote from Zaire. "I have had good success with Muscovies. Unlike rabbits, cattle, goats and local chickens, the ducks need no veterinary products or special feed requirements. Where we work we can never count on medicines or feed supplements. Muscovies like water but survive well on only a dish pan full. They breed readily on land and are not as well equipped for swimming as are other ducks. There is no need to make a pond for them. They are better foragers than most ducks. Here in the village they survive quite well on foraging only. They take much less care than rabbits.

"They come in various colors. Ours are black and white. The Africans think the black ones are less susceptible to hawks. We started with one male and two female adults. After 8 months we have had about 25 eggs to eat and 45 ducks of various sizes to eat. We had losses from drakes killing ducklings until we separated them. You must keep the ducklings out of the rain and tall wet grass. I keep them penned up in the rabbit house at night. In fact, I raise the ducks with rabbits because they clean up all the feed that the rabbits spill. Make sure that the feeder and waterer are close together and that the waterer is shallow enough that they cannot get trapped in it and drown. I use a basin with a small log in it so they can get out. They need to have enough water to keep their noses clean. Feeding can be just a nice lawn if you don't mind them wandering. They usually will return to their pen before dark. They eat insects and grass enough to keep them healthy. I supplement my older ducks with manioc flour mixed with very little millet and corn. Or I feed millet if I have a lot. They can survive from scavenging around the yard, but grow very slowly. When I can feed them a high protein ration with soybean flour or dried fish in a millet base during the first 2-3 weeks, they grow much faster.

"Nesting boxes need not be fancy, just a corner in a dry place. No floor or ceiling is needed: let them nest on the ground--fowl eggs often need the extra moisture. Provide some dry grass or straw for nesting material, then partition them from any disturbances in a 3-sided box. They lay about 9-16 eggs, then set for 33-35 days.

"Spacing in the pens is important because too many ducks can result in cannibalism. You will know when there are too many because there is a definite pecking order, with the youngest the most affected. After 3 age groups were put together we noticed the fourth group was not well accepted. So we put all the older ducks in a new pen and start to fill the old one again. Once they are old enough to defend themselves we can add them to the older ducks. Drakes especially tend to fight more if they are crowded. In other words, it is nice to have an extra pen."

Geoff Clerke in Papua New Guinea sent us a good 8-page mimeographed article called "Muscovy Ducks for PNG Villages." (We can send you a copy of this upon request.) Here are a few highlights. The Muscovy is ideally suited for PNG village conditions where farmers rely on natural incubation and foraging. You need good shade, because the ducks may get sick if they stay in the sun for long. Do not put them near a pig fence because hogs kill and eat ducks. If possible, feed commercial feed for 6 weeks. A duckling will eat about 3 kg. In the highlands you might need a brooder for extra heat for the first two weeks. To do this, make a small round enclosure about 1 m in diameter with flat iron, woven bamboo, cardboard, etc. and cover it with old bags, leaving an uncovered strip about 30 cm wide in the middle. Put a kerosene lamp inside the strip not covered by the bags.

After 6 weeks, ducks can be fed entirely on locally produced food: sweet potatoes, taro, banana, pumpkin, choko, etc. Ducks will eat anything that humans eat, but their food must be cooked. Follow this rule to know how much feed to give them: If they eat everything within half an hour they are still hungry; cook more the next time. If they start to wander away from the feed after half an hour and some is left, they have had enough. Feeding locally-produced feed is not enough. They must be able to graze/forage daily in order to get enough protein, mainly from insects and grass seeds which are not found on bare ground or in short grass. Even a very big fence is not enough because as soon as all the grass is finished it will become bare and hard from grazing and trampling. There must be no fence around a duck house: a fenced-in project is a project that will fail. It is better to have a few ducks lost to dogs or other predators than to have the whole flock dying due to protein deficiency. Lack of protein will result in poor growth, never getting heavy enough to eat. Also, lack of feathers will let them get cold and die. Finally, they will never lay eggs.

In selecting breeding stock, choose the heaviest drake with a belly parallel to the ground. Do not keep any drake which looks like it is standing with the breast much higher than the belly. Do not keep more than 10 ducks for breeding; otherwise, it is probable that the garden produce will be in short supply to feed the flock and all the birds will do poorly. Hens can be kept for 3 years and drakes 2. Ducks start to lay at 8 and 1/2 to 9 months. The first eggs are small and should not be used for hatching, as they are likely to be either sterile or to give small and weak birds. If a duck does not lay eggs, it should be eaten or sold. It can be recognized because (1) it is heavier than the other birds, (2) the flesh around the eyes is red, like a drake, instead of being pink or orange, (3) the space between the two pelvic bones is about 1 finger wide instead of 2 or 3. Eat or sell ducks at 4 months unless they are to become breeding stock. [There is much more practical information like this in the PNG write-up.]

ECHO no longer has Muscovies. We found that muscovies would periodically swing through planting areas eating young vegetables. We fenced in the pond and clipped their wings to keep them in, but then predators killed most of them. When our local bobcat problem is not too serious, we maintain a flock of Khaki Campbell ducks, known for their egg-laying. Ducks are hardy, low-maintenance animals, suited for flooded areas in the tropics where chickens or other animals may not thrive.

Where can you obtain muscovy ducks? Try to obtain ducks in your own country. If this is difficult, you might ask Heifer Project (see above) for help in locating a source; they may know of one near you. Dr. Jim DeVries at Heifer Project said that Muscovy ducklings are especially difficult to ship, even in the States. If they do not receive special care within 48 hours, the losses will be high. It would probably be best to ship eggs, but they are very difficult to hatch in an incubator. He recommended that you hatch them under a chicken or duck.

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